Court Portraiture Reinvented
During his years at the court of Ludovico Sforza in Milan (1482–1499), Leonardo revolutionized portrait painting. He brought psychological depth, dynamic poses, and his developing sfumato technique to a genre that had been dominated by static profile views.
Lady with an Ermine
c. 1489–1491 · 54.8 × 40.3 cm · Oil on walnut · Czartoryski Museum, Kraków
Purchased by the Polish government in 2016 for €100 million. The walnut panel is exceptionally thin at only 4–5 mm.
The Ermine's Three Lives
Pascal Cotte's 2014 Layer Amplification Method revealed that Leonardo painted the work in three distinct stages:
- Portrait without any ermine — just the woman
- Small grey ermine added
- Large white ermine painted over the first
The evolution likely reflects Ludovico Sforza's 1488 appointment to the Order of the Ermine — prompting a heraldic upgrade. The background was originally bluish-grey, overpainted black probably in the mid-18th century.
Survival Through War
Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski acquired the painting in Italy c. 1798. In September 1939, Nazi officials discovered it during the invasion of Poland. Hans Frank, Nazi Governor-General, hung it in his office at Wawel Castle. American forces recovered it in Bavaria in May 1945.
Symbolism
The sitter is Cecilia Gallerani (c. 1473–1536), mistress of Ludovico Sforza. The ermine carries multiple symbolic layers: Greek galê (ermine/weasel) puns on "Gallerani"; Leonardo's bestiary states the ermine "prefers to die rather than soil itself" (symbol of purity).
Portrait of a Musician
c. 1483–1487 · 44.7 × 32 cm · Oil on walnut · Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan
Leonardo's only panel painting to remain in Milan. A 1904–1905 restoration revealed a hand holding sheet music — transforming it from "Portrait of a Duke" to "Portrait of a Musician."
The Attribution Divide
For Leonardo: The face shows sfumato modeling, anatomical precision, and intensity of gaze. Walnut panel matches his preferred support. IR underdrawings are consistent with his techniques.
Against full authorship: The rigid, stiff body is uncharacteristic. Static pose lacks contrapposto. Harsh shadows show fewer thin oil layers. Musical notation is not in mirror writing.
Consensus: Frank Zöllner states it is "now accepted that Leonardo executed the face, while Boltraffio is credited with the entire upper body."
Leading sitter candidates: Atalante Migliorotti (Leonardo's musician friend, frontrunner), Franchino Gaffurius, or Josquin des Prez.
La Belle Ferronnière
c. 1490–1497 · 63 × 45 cm · Oil on walnut · Louvre, Paris
Modern infrared reflectography revealed pentimenti (alterations to facial contours and ferronnière position) characteristic of Leonardo's iterative process.
The Hahn Lawsuit — Art's Greatest Trial
Andrée Hahn claimed her canvas version was the genuine Leonardo. Sir Joseph Duveen declared it a copy without seeing it. The 1929 New York trial was inconclusive — the jury couldn't agree — and Duveen settled for $60,000. The Hahn version sold at Sotheby's in 2010 for $1,538,500 as "by a follower of Leonardo."
Technical Note
XRF analysis by C2RMF reveals that unlike the Mona Lisa, Leonardo did not use translucent glazes for shadow effects — he used opaque dark pigments, placing this work earlier in his sfumato development.
The "ferronnière" headband is actually a common Lombard fashion accessory called a lenza. The sitter's identity remains debated: Lucrezia Crivelli (traditional), Beatrice d'Este, or Isabella of Aragon.